How To Tell If An Animal Bone Has Been Worked To Make Tool

Abstract

For a long while, the controversy surrounding several bone tools coming from pre-Upper Palaeolithic contexts favoured the view of Homo sapiens as the only species of the genus Man capable of modifying fauna basic into specialised tools. However, evidence such as South African Early Stone Age modified bones, European Lower Palaeolithic flaked bone tools, along with Eye and Late Pleistocene bone retouchers, led to a re-evaluation of the conception of Homo sapiens as the exclusive manufacturer of specialised bone tools. The evidence presented herein include use clothing and bone residues identified on two flint scrapers every bit well as a sawing mark on a fallow deer tibia, not associated with butchering activities. Dated to more than 300 kya, the evidence hither presented is among the primeval related to tool-assisted bone working intended for non-dietary purposes, and contributes to the debate over the recognition of bone working as a much older behaviour than previously thought. The results of this written report come from the application of a combined methodological approach, comprising use wear assay, residue analysis, and taphonomy. This approach allowed for the retrieval of both direct and indirect evidence of tool-assisted bone working, at the Lower Palaeolithic site of Qesem Cave (Israel).

Introduction

Homo sapiens' supposedly exclusive manufacture of specialised tools made from modified brute basic, along with other aspects such as art and specialised hunting weapons, has led to the definition of a articulate behavioural and cerebral purlieus betwixt H. sapiens and the other species of the genus Human being ¹.

However, numerous show, coming from South Africa and Europe, suggests that the exploitation of modified animal bones should be viewed as an expression of a much older behaviour. Some of the oldest evidence relating to the use of modified creature bones comes from several Early Stone Age South African contexts^{2,iii,iv,five,6}. Fauna bones were used past early hominids for termite foraging at the sites of Swartkrans and Sterkfontein, dated betwixt one.8 and one mya^two,3. Analysis of the bone tools found at the site of Drimolen^3,4, dated between 2 and 1.five mya, provided similar results. As in the cases of Sterkfontein and Swartkrans, the use wear identified on the tips of the tools suggests their utilize for digging soil, virtually probable to be associated with termite foraging. Evidence of intentional bone modification has been recorded at Swartkrans where the tips of several horn cores bear traces of intentional shaping through grinding activities^five. Furthermore, at Cleaved Hill (Kabwe) in Zambia, several bone tools were discovered which bear evidence of shaping by cutting with stone tools and subsequent polishing; these tools are attributed to the early Middle Stone Historic period⁶.

Other examples of tools made from modified beast basic include flaked bone tools, such every bit bifaces made from flaked elephant basic that take been institute in several Acheulean contexts, bone flakes and bone retouchers, unearthed in numerous Middle and Late Pleistocene sites^{7,8,ix,x,xi,12,13,14,15}. Further evidence of specialised bone tool product comes from the Middle Palaeolithic sites of Pech de fifty'Azé I and Abri Peyrony in French republic. In these sites, animal ribs were shaped by Neanderthals to create bone smoothers (lissoirs), which were used specifically to process hide¹⁶.

Here we present evidence related to the processing of animal bones, unrelated to dietary purposes and performed using specific deportment and specific stone tools. This evidence originates from ongoing excavations at the Middle Pleistocene site of Qesem Cave in Israel and has not yet been observed in any other context as old every bit this. Our show includes two flint tools, which bear use wear associated with bone working and preserved bone residues on their edges, and a broken dormant deer tibia exhibiting a non-dietary sawing mark. The evidence presented here is at least 300 kya old—perchance closer to 400 kya^17,18 ^—and is potentially some of the earliest evidence of deliberate stone tool-assisted bone working associated with non-dietary purposes.

Results

The Center Pleistocene site of Qesem Cave in Israel is dated between 420 and 200 kya and is culturally associated with the tardily Lower Palaeolithic Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Circuitous (AYCC). Ongoing research at the cavern provides a wealth of well-preserved evidence for innovative behaviours throughout the sequence, including rock tools technology and employ^19,xx,21, subsistence economy^22,23, and site organisation^24,25, peradventure practised by a new hominin lineage²⁶.

Use Vesture Analysis

Ongoing functional analysis, performed by means of employ clothing and rest analyses (for details, see SI 1 and two), on Quina and demi-Quina scrapers unearthed at the site, provided potent testify of bone processing on at least one Quina scraper (QC-D/7b-1085-1090) and i demi-Quina scraper (QC-East/8b-950-955). Hither we nowadays the observations and assay of these two flint implements.

QC-D/7b-1085-1090 (Fig. 1a) is a flint Quina scraper with an abrupt, straight border exhibiting a scale-stepped invasive retouch. The damage observed on the tool'south border consists of close regular step scars located both on the ventral and dorsal border surfaces associated with an overall high caste of edge rounding (Fig. 1d). Smooth apartment polish, exhibiting an oblique unidirectional orientation, is present on the tool's edge, and on both the ventral and dorsal surfaces (Fig. 1b).

QC-E/8b-950-955 (Fig. 2a) is a demi-Quina flintstone scraper with a thin, straight border exhibiting a scale-stepped retouch. The harm affecting the tool'southward edge consists of footstep scars located both on the ventral and dorsal edge surfaces, forth with an overall high degree of edge rounding. Several snapped edge areas are present as well. The micro vesture identified consists of a smooth flat shine located on both the tool's ventral and dorsal surfaces (Fig. 2b). The edge damage and micro clothing observed on the working edges of both tools are clearly related to bone working performed with a longitudinal motion.

Residuum Analysis

Using Micro Fourier Transform Infra-Red (Micro-FTIR) spectroscopy nosotros were able to identify preserved bone residue on the working edges of both tools (for details, see Supplementary Data). Hydroxyapatite, representing the mineral component of bone, was plant on the dorsal surface of the edges of QC-D/7b-1085-1095 (Fig. 1c) and QC-E/8b-950-955 (Fig. 2c).

In both cases the Micro-FTIR spectrum of the edge's dorsal surface shows a shoulder on the low frequency side of the Si-O stretching mode (~913 cm⁻¹); this suggests the presence of bone micro residues, equally it is attributable to the PO3= stretching manner of calcium phosphate (apatite), which constitutes the bone's mineral component.

Residues morphologically comparable to bone tissues have also been identified, via microscope, on the edge and on the surfaces of QC-E/8b-950-955.

These residues are represented by: (a) whitish elongated fibres trapped in an old fracture along the edge of the tool (Fig. 3a); (b) numerous whitish opaque patches with a corrugated and sometimes cracked advent, filling the micro-depressions which characterise both the surfaces and the edge of the tool (Fig. 3b); and (c) white globular concretions of sleeky appearance, packed into micro-fractures along the border of the tool lonely. All residues are birefringent when polarised light is used. Furthermore, it was possible to distinguish and characterise collagen fibres and bone mineral particles within the residues, using an SEM equipped with an EDS probe (Figs 2d and 3c).

Additional bone processing-related utilise habiliment and preserved bone residues have been identified on minor sharp flint items produced via a form of recycling^19,21,27, recovered from Qesem Cave following similar belittling procedures (for details, see Supplementary Information, in item Supplementary Figure S3 and Supplementary Tabular array S3).

Taphonomic Analysis

In addition to the lithic evidence, nosotros nowadays a bone specimen that reinforces our hypothesis of bone working activeness, performed using specific rock tools. The os specimen from square F/9c-735–740 cm beneath datum is a distal tibia shaft fragment from a dormant deer. While this bone comes from a higher elevation within the sequence than the two artefacts discussed to a higher place, information technology is even so relevant every bit it was associated with the aforementioned (AYCC) cultural context and with the same techno-typological flint assemblage as the previously described flint tools. The broken tibia is most probably part of a fallow deer limb that was brought to the cave, processed for food, discarded, and later modified with a flint tool. It shows a set of concentrated and overlapping short and deep incisions on the os surface, best described as a sawing mark (Fig. 4). These incisions correspond to a repeated back-and-forth movement, during which the border of a flintstone tool remained in continuous contact with the bone surface. These tin can be interpreted as sawing marks since they likewise show the characteristic V-shaped department with a slight flat bottom, oblique delineation, and internal micro-striations arranged lengthwise and parallel to the main movement centrality.

The breakage characteristics (outline, fracture bending, and edge) of this os specimen indicate a green (fresh) stage breakage. Nevertheless, jagged textures are besides observable on two transverse and longitudinal breakage planes of the os, indicating that certain post-depositional processes (including different types of pressure loading, such as trampling and/or soil compaction) may have affected information technology²⁸. In addition, one cortical scar, documented virtually the longitudinal bone edge, was likely produced during os breakage for marrow extraction.

The sawing mark is partially located on one of the os breakage planes (Figs 4A1 and A1c), and thus had to have been generated after bone breakage. When a nutritional purpose for the processing is the instance, the defleshing (and associated cutting marks) takes place before bone breakage for marrow extraction. Once the bone is fragmented, little meat, if any, remains, and no further cutting is necessary. Thus, the virtually probable caption in this example is that the observed deep sawing mark is the result of a non-dietary action that occurred after the os had been de-fleshed and marrow-candy for consumption. It is worth noting that we also detected a certain degree of polishing and rounding linked to taphonomic processes which affected the whole bone, such as low-cal sedimentary abrasion by water flow²⁹. In the case of the specimen presented hither, this alteration is peculiarly evident on the sawing mark and the area around it (Figs 4A1, A1b, and Fig. 4B). Nosotros advise that this relates to the presence of previous polishing in this expanse as a issue of the sawing activity, which was later augmented by the general mail-depositional processes that acted upon it.

In order to further investigate the sawing mark identified on the archaeological specimen F/9c-735-740 a dedicated experimental framework has been practical, utilising dissimilar types of flint tools to cutting through both fresh and dry bones (for details, see Supplementary Information). The results of our experimental framework bespeak that the markings produced past bidirectional movements with angles that tend ever to be similar, around ninety°, regardless of the tool used and the condition of the bone. However, exploring the results in greater item, some essential differences tin can be observed. The main deviation concerns the resulting polishing and rounding of the cortical surfaces. The markings produced on dry bones are usually accompanied by a more pronounced degree of buffing, which exceeds the firsthand boundaries of the mark and which can sometimes be accompanied by slight cortical notches. The other difference is the degree of inclination and opening of the walls of the marking's department, which depends on the type and edge of the tool used. Demi-Quina scrapers usually produce wider and more inclined V-shaped sections.

Moreover, assay was performed on the smooth developed on the experimental items, taking into business relationship the type of flintstone tool used and the state of the bone when the sawing was performed. Our experimental items showed a slight polishing and rounding on the sawn area, as that observed on archaeological specimen F/9c-735-740, especially when demi-Quina scrapers were used on de-fatted (dry) bones (see Supplementary Information: in particular, Supplementary Figure S3 and Supplementary Table S3).

Discussion

Testify related to specific activities such equally carving and the cutting or scraping of bone, almost likely for the product of os tools, is scarcely known in early Palaeolithic contexts^iii,eight,10. The innovative information presented here provides the offset show of bone working, through sawing, using a specific kind of flint tools. Our evidence is considerably different in nature from that which concerns the modification of bone through employ or grinding activities, suggested by several South African findings dating back to the Early Rock Age^2,5. It also clearly differs from the shaping of tools (or flake knapping) of large animals' bones, performed through flaking (due east.thousand., using a hammerstone^30,31), well known from the Lower Palaeolithic Acheulean.

The results of this study allow united states to argue that at Qesem Cavern, hominins were bringing selected body parts of hunted game to the cave and, after the meat, fatty, and marrow were consumed, they occasionally used the discarded animal bones for not-dietary purposes. Had the bone been an isolated discover, we would not hands rule out the possibility that the sawing mark was fabricated accidentally. Notwithstanding with the current evidence of bone working use-wear and bone residues on flint tools and the sawing mark, we can land that the Qesem hominins used the bone for a not-nutritional activity and this fact tin can be related to the inclusion of new materials in their chaîne opératoire. The data presented here represents an innovative behaviour, practised between 420 and 300 kya, possibly the oldest evidence related to intentional not-dietary modification of bone through the use of specific stone tools. Moreover, our results are in perfect accordance with additional evidence related to a non-dietary exploitation of hard fauna materials recorded at the site – i.east., the apply of bone fragments as bone retouchers¹².

In summary, the outstanding preservation and the application of an integrated multidisciplinary approach immune us to identify directly and indirect evidence of bone working using stone tools at this early date. This demonstrates that the technological knowledge traditionally regarded as an expression of the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic sapiens cognitive sphere – i.due east., the production of objects made of animate being basic – was present at Qesem Cave. Our finds are significant to the argue of whether pre-sapiens hominins mastered bone tool product. Moreover, our results shift the argue significantly dorsum in time, necessitating a reassessment of the evidence considered to document behavioural modernity¹.

Methods

The flint objects were analysed throughout the adoption of both depression and high power approaches³². In our work, a Nikon SMZ stereomicroscope, capable of magnification upward to 7.5x and equipped with fibre optic lighting, was used to analyse edge damage; a Nikon Metallurgical microscope, capable of magnification up to 500x and with reflected lighting, was used to analyse micro wear. The infrared spectra of the stone tools were nerveless with a Bruker Optic Alpha-R portable interferometer with an external reflectance caput covering a round expanse approximately five mm in diameter. The investigated spectral range was 7500–375 cm⁻ⁱ at a resolution of iv cm⁻¹ and 250 scans or more. The specimens were analysed both before and after beingness washed, along with a sample of the sediments in which they were embedded (come across Supplementary Figure S2).

Residues were observed in situ using a Leica 205 C stereo-microscope with LED lighting at magnifications from 10x to 165x. The nature of the residues was interpreted on the basis of their morpho-qualitative features (color, appearance, inclusions, consistency, birefringence, etc.), through archaeological comparison^33,34,35,36 as well as past evaluating a collection of comparative experimental residues. In particular, our reference collection included residues produced while using flint implements to work bone and antler, natural every bit well as ochre-stained hide, tendons, forest, bark, siliceous plants, and adhesive compounds (e.g. beeswax, resin, bitumen, animal glues, etc.) used for hafting. SEM-EDS assay of the residues was performed using a Hitachi TM3000-Tabletop Scanning Electron Microscope equipped with SWIFT ED3000 EDS probe.

The fossil and experimental bones were analysed using a stereo lite microscope, with a magnification of up to 120x and equipped with an oblique cold calorie-free source, and an analytical FEI QUANTA 600 Ecology Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM), at a magnification of up to 300x operating in the low vacuum style. The specimens were and so examined with a KH-8700 3D Digital Microscope, which uses loftier-intensity LED optics with a full HD monitor to reconstruct three-dimensional surfaces. The criteria used to diagnose the sawing marks conformed to previously reported modifications in the taphonomic literature. Os breakage planes were analysed in terms of outline, fracture angle, and edge, according to the criteria described by Villa & Mahieu²⁸. Post-depositional alterations were also analysed and included manganese oxide precipitation, surface geochemical alteration, root etching, polishing, and rounding.

Boosted Information

How to cite this article: Zupancich, A. et al. Early evidence of stone tool use in bone working activities at Qesem Cave, State of israel. Sci. Rep. six, 37686; doi: 10.1038/srep37686 (2016).

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Acknowledgements

The Qesem Cave excavation project is supported, throughout the years, by the State of israel Science Foundation, the CARE Archaeological Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Dan David foundation and the Thyssen Foundation. We thank the Irene Sala CARE Foundation, the MAECI (Minstero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale) and the funding support of Sapienza Academy for the promotion of International Academy Agreements. J. Rosell and R. Blasco develop their work within the Spanish MINECO projects CGL2015-65387-C3-i-P (J. Rosell) and CGL2015-68604-P (R. Blasco), the Generalitat de Catalunya-AGAUR projects 2014 SGR 900 and 2014/100573, and the SéNeCa Foundation projection 19434/PI/fourteen.

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Authors and Affiliations

Section of Archeology, Tel-Aviv Academy, Plant of Archaeology, POB 39040, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel

Andrea Zupancich, Ruth Blasco, Ran Barkai & Avi Gopher
Scientific Methodologies Applied to Cultural Heritage (SMATCH), ISMN-CNR c\o Dept. of Chemical science, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, Rome, Italia

Stella Nunziante-Cesaro
Centro Nacional de Investigacìon sobre la Evolucìon Humana (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, Burgos, 09002, Kingdom of spain

Ruth Blasco
Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya, 35, Tarragona, 43002, Espana

Jordi Rosell
IPHES; Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evoluciò Social, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), Tarragona, 43007, Kingdom of spain

Jordi Rosell
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, U.k.

Emanuela Cristiani
Department of Classics, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italia

Flavia Venditti & Cristina Lemorini

Contributions

A.Z. managed the overall paper and contributed to the use wear analysis of the flintstone scrapers presented in the manuscript, Southward.Due north.C. contributed to the Micro FT-IR analysis, R.B. and J.R. contributed to the assay of the sawing mark found on specimen QC-F9c-735-740 and performed the experimental os sawing, E.C. contributed to the morphological analysis of the archaeological and experimental os residues, F.V. contributed to the use wear analysis on the recycled items, C.L. contributed to the functional interpretation of the use wear results, R.B. and A.G. are the directors of the Qesem Cave Projection and provided a general contribution to the paper. All the authors contributed to the writing of this paper.

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Zupancich, A., Nunziante-Cesaro, S., Blasco, R. et al. Early evidence of rock tool employ in os working activities at Qesem Cave, State of israel. Sci Rep vi, 37686 (2016). https://doi.org/ten.1038/srep37686

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Received: 15 July 2016
Accepted: 03 Oct 2016
Published: 25 November 2016
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/srep37686

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